The Shady Business of Food Fraud

When you shop for food, are you getting what you pay for? How would you know? News stories in recent years have uncovered imported "extra-virgin" olive oil that's actually a blend of other oils entirely, cheap varieties of fish passed off as pricier types and grated Parmesan cheese containing higher-than-allowed levels of cellulose. With these stories of food fraud, you may be wondering about the authenticity (and in some cases, the safety) of your food purchases.

While there is no legal definition of food fraud, it's financially motivated and meant to deceive consumers. Food fraud can range from a product weight that's off, to an adulterated product that could sicken thousands of people. There are three main types of food fraud to be aware of:

Replacement
This includes complete or partial replacement of an ingredient with something less expensive. This is food fraud when it is not disclosed on the label. Replacement can include both food and nonfood items added to food. Diluting lemon juice by adding water and citric acid is a type of replacement.
False declarations are another type of replacement. Examples include substituting cow's milk for goat's milk, selling slices of trout marketed as salmon and misrepresenting a food's origin.

Addition
Addition involves adding small amounts of undeclared ingredients to mask inferior quality. Examples include adding color additives to paprika or fish to mask poor-quality materials.

Removal
Removal is taking out key parts of a food or ingredient without the buyer knowing. An example might include removing flavor compounds from paprika to produce flavoring extracts. It's fraudulent to sell the remaining paprika, which lacks the flavoring compounds of normal paprika.

The extent and impact of food fraud is difficult to calculate. This is because it’s done in secret — and most cases are never exposed if they don't pose a public health risk. It's also tough to catch in action. Globalization of the food supply also makes it easy for fraud to occur. Complex supply chains, paperwork transfers and inconsistent oversight make fraud hard to detect and prevent.

Health Hazards

Although food fraud is economically driven, harm to public health can be the result. One high-profile example occurred with infant formula in 2008. Powdered infant formula from China was adulterated with the chemical melamine to give the appearance of a normal protein content. Nearly 300,000 babies became ill — and as many as six may have died — after consuming contaminated product.

Another major incident occurred in the U.S. in 2009. Salmonella-contaminated peanuts were sold and misbranded to unwitting food manufacturers. More than 700 people in 46 states became sick and several deaths were linked to the products. Two peanut processor executives were indicted on felony charges for intent to defraud or mislead in this case.

Severe health consequences can occur when individuals consume an unexpected ingredient. This includes when an individual has a food allergy, intolerance or sensitivity and consumes a product thought to be "safe." And while not a health hazard, people also may unknowingly consume ingredients they avoid for religious or ethical reasons.

Take Action

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have mechanisms to identify and prevent food fraud. However, they don't have the resources to physically inspect most products, much less detect every case. For instance, in 2011, the FDA only inspected about 2.3% of all food and feed imports. More sophisticated and accurate methods to detect fraud are becoming available, such as DNA testing and genome sequencing to help ensure authenticity. These tools are even being used by the food industry itself.

Meanwhile, consumers also can take steps to reduce the risk of deception:

• Shop at trusted retailers and cultivate relationships with small, local businesses. This isn't foolproof — even honest sellers can be fraud victims, too — but they may take extra care to source their products. Local merchants may have direct oversight of their suppliers, such as a small grocer who picks up his organic produce from the farm down the road.
• Choose time-honored, reputable brands and products. Be wary of bargain prices for foods such as saffron and extra-virgin olive oil — they might be diluted with cheaper ingredients.
• Buy foods as close to their natural form as possible. For instance, purchase whole coffee beans and whole spices, or grow your own herbs.
• If you suspect fraud, report it. Tell the retailer and the manufacturer through their website or the consumer hotline number on the package. For FDA-regulated products (any food except meat and poultry), contact the FDA Consumer Complaint Coordinator in your state. For meat and poultry products, contact the USDA Office of Inspector General.
• If you suspect a food product has made you sick, contact your public health department right away.

Be aware of foods that commonly fall victim to fraud. The following are the leading food categories with reported cases of food fraud:

1. Olive Oil. It's often substituted with a lower-cost type of olive oil or thinned with a nut or seed oil.
2. Fish and Seafood. Sometimes cheaper, more abundant fish are sold as higher-value species.
3. Milk and Milk-based Products. Cow's milk may have other types of animal milk added to it. It also may be adulterated with reconstituted milk powder, urea, rennet or other products. Adulterated milk might be added to infant formula and other milk-based products.
4. Honey, Maple Syrup and Other Natural Sweeteners. Honey might contain undisclosed types of added sugars. Maple syrup is sometimes thinned out with sugar or corn syrup.
5. Fruit Juice. Juices might be watered down, cut with a cheaper juice or contain only water, dye and sugary flavorings.
6. Coffee and Tea. Ground coffee may contain leaves, twigs and other substances. Instant coffee may include chicory, cereals and other substances. Tea may contain leaves from other plants, color additives and colored saw dust.
7. Spices. Some spices have been found to contain coloring and other adulterants. These include saffron, ground black pepper, vanilla extract, turmeric, star anise, paprika and chili powder.
8. Organic Foods and Products. USDA has detected domestic and international products labeled fraudulently.
9. Clouding Agents. These are used legally to enhance fruit juices, jams and other foods. However, plasticizers and phthalates may be added fraudulently. These are linked to public health risks, such as cancer and reproductive concerns.

This article originally appeared in Food & Nutrition Magazine®, published by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, and was updated in September 2025.